LTM - Lezione 1

1. Language and Linguistics Fundamentals

Language is the general human faculty enabling verbal exchange of information through speech, writing, signing, or braille. It is a universal capacity shared by humans.

A language refers to a specific system of verbal communication used by a particular group of speakers, characterized by unique pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. Speakers of one language typically understand each other but not speakers of other languages.

Linguistic communication involves conveying messages through language, while non-linguistic communication includes gestures like laughing, smiling, or shrieking.

2. Creativity in Language

• Human languages use a finite set of basic units (sounds, symbols, gestures).
• These units combine to form an infinite number of possible sentences, most of which are novel.
• This creativity makes language complex and difficult to replicate in artificial intelligence, as seen in challenges with machine translation.

> Language is a universal human capacity enabling infinite novel expressions through finite basic units.

1. Creative Aspect of Human Language

Human language is unique due to its creative aspect: speakers can combine basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of well-formed grammatical sentences, most of which are novel and never produced or heard before. This creativity distinguishes human language from other communication systems.

2. Beyond Words: Syntax and Structure

• Language is not just a set of words arranged in any order.
• Syntax governs how words combine to form acceptable sentences.
• Some sequences of words are ungrammatical or nonsensical despite containing valid words.

a) Examples of Acceptable vs. Unacceptable Sentences

3. Language Production Complexity

Producing language involves more than just words and syntax; it also includes:

• Emotions
• Context
• Pragmatics

These elements contribute to the richness and complexity of human communication.

4. Ambiguity in Language Use

Language often contains ambiguities that allow multiple interpretations. Understanding ambiguity involves:

• Identifying different possible meanings of a sentence or phrase.
• Recognizing what causes the ambiguity (e.g., word order, lexical ambiguity, syntactic structure).
• Noting which interpretation feels more natural or likely based on context or common usage.

a) Examples of Ambiguous Headlines

Ambiguity arises from syntax, word meaning, and phrase attachment, influencing interpretation and naturalness.

Key point: Human language is uniquely creative, governed by syntax, and rich in ambiguity, making it a complex communication system beyond mere word sequences.

1. Key Points on Language Use and Structure

• Knowing a language involves more than recognizing its forms; it requires understanding vocabulary, structure, emotions, world knowledge, and language conventions.
• Language production is a complex system combining routine usage and creative deviation (e.g., creating new expressions).
• Language use is shaped by social needs and varies according to communicative purposes and contexts.
• The communicative situation influences the purpose, style, structure, and content of a text.

2. Adaptation of Texts

Texts must be adapted to:

3. Translation Considerations

• Translation is not a simple word-for-word replacement.
• It requires attention to conventions and audience expectations to maintain the original function and meaning.

> Language is a dynamic system shaped by social context, conventions, and communicative goals, not just by assembling linguistic units.

1. Language Use and Conventions

Language is not just a set of words but a system of signs used to express social meanings and fulfill communicative purposes. Effective communication depends on sense making and interaction with the context or "the surrounding."

2. Key Concepts

• Equivalent words or phrases are necessary to build communication in a new language but are only the starting point.
• The appropriate form must be chosen for a specific context and purpose to maintain the function of the original message.
• According to Torresi (2010: 23):

  

  If the function of the source text (ST) is not preserved, the target text (TT) is disloyal, even if the literal meaning is accurate. If the function is maintained, the translation is loyal, even if the form and content change.

3. From Formal to Functional Linguistics

4. Functional Approach Example

• Formal approach:
  "The lesson was led by the teacher."
  → Focus on grammatical structure (passive voice).

• Functional approach:
  Focuses on the communicative purpose and context rather than just form.

To retain loyalty in translation or communication, preserving the function and purpose of the original message is more important than literal form or content.

1. Formal Approach to Linguistics

• Focuses on sentence structure and rules that generate sentences.
• Example: Transforming an active sentence into a passive one involves:
  • Movement of constituents (e.g., "the teacher" moves after "by").
  • Reordering (e.g., "the lesson" moves to the front).
  • Verb form change (active "led" → passive "was led").
• Passive voice highlights the action and recipient without assigning blame.

2. Functional Approach to Linguistics

• Views language as a system of socially motivated signs used to achieve specific functions.
• Language functions are categorized into three main types:

• Language is context-dependent, used to communicate effectively in specific situations.
• It serves to:
  • Express content
  • Establish social roles
  • Construct situationally relevant and coherent texts

3. Key Questions in Linguistics

• Are words independent units of meaning?
• Do words gain meaning only through combination with other words?
• How are words combined to form meaningful expressions?

Language is a system of signs used socially to perform ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions.

1. Meaning Variation and Context

• Same word, different meanings: A word can have multiple meanings depending on the context.
• Linguistic context (co-text): Other words in the same sentence help determine meaning.
  • Example: pupil means student if near words like teacher, classmates.
  • pupil means part of the eye if near words like iris, dilatation.
• Context of situation: The environment or setting where communication happens influences meaning.
• Context of culture: Shared cultural knowledge and assumptions shape how meanings are understood.

2. Pragmatic Meaning: Metaphors and Implicatures

• Metaphors: Words used figuratively to convey traits.
  • Elephant = clumsy
  • Pig = greedy
• Implicatures: Additional implied meanings based on context.
  • Without context: Jane is clumsy, Steve is greedy.
  • With context:
    • "She’s still mad at me. What an elephant Jane is!" → Jane has a long memory.
    • "Look at this room. Steve’s a pig." → Steve is messy.

3. Cultural References in Language Use

• Understanding references requires cultural knowledge.
• Example from Ocean’s Eleven:
  • Rusty says: "I hoped you were the groom."
  • Danny replies: "Ted Nugent called. He wants his shirt back."
• Ted Nugent: Famous US rock singer known for eccentric clothes.
• The joke relies on knowing Ted Nugent’s flamboyant style to understand the insult about Danny’s shirt.

Key point: Meaning depends heavily on linguistic, situational, and cultural context; metaphors and implicatures enrich communication beyond literal words.

1. Multiple Meanings of a Word: "Funny"

The word "funny" has several distinct meanings depending on context:

Key point: Words do not have fixed meanings; their meaning depends heavily on context and word combinations.

2. Words and Contextual Meaning

• Words do not act independently; their meaning changes when combined with others.
• Combinations of words can alter or generate new meanings (e.g., "feel funny" means feeling unwell, not amusing).
• Semantic descriptions alone are insufficient to capture how words are used in real language.

3. Summary

• Context is crucial for understanding word meaning.
• A single word can have multiple meanings that only become clear through its use in phrases or sentences.
• Linguistic meaning is dynamic and interactional, not static or isolated.

1. Lexico-Grammatical Systems and Language Use

Lexico-grammatical systems refer to the combined lexical (vocabulary) and grammatical patterns that govern how words co-occur and form meaning in a language. These systems are not purely logical but shaped by habitual use and conventions.

2. Key Concepts

• Co-selection (Co-occurrence): Words tend to appear with certain other words or grammatical structures repeatedly. This pattern helps define the profile and meaning of a word.
• Concordance lines (KWIC format): A method to analyze word usage by aligning a target word (node) centrally and reading vertically to observe recurring lexical and grammatical patterns.
• Lexico-syntactic rules vs. Usage: While some word combinations follow strict syntactic rules, many depend on routine and conventional use, which explains why some phrases sound odd despite being grammatically correct.

3. Examples of Lexico-Grammatical Phenomena

4. Important Notes on Language Use

• Language-specific conventions: Each language has unique lexico-grammatical systems and usage patterns that may defy logical rules.
• Routine and habit: Many lexical combinations are fixed by frequent use rather than strict grammar.
• Semantic nuances: Words with similar forms can have different meanings depending on context and usage.

To remember: Words gain meaning through their habitual co-occurrence patterns, not just by logical grammatical rules.

1. Rules of Grammar versus Rules of Use

Key distinction:

• Rules of grammar describe the formal structure of language (word forms, syntax).
• Rules of use govern how language is actually used in context, which may deviate from strict grammar.

2. Meaning is not always compositional

• Prefixes like un- do not always mean "not":
  • unwell ≠ "not well" (means "sick")
  • unhappy ≠ "not happy" (means "sad")
• Words like ago and back differ in usage:
  • Correct: ten years ago, ten years back
  • Incorrect: ten miles ago (only ten miles back is acceptable)
• Time expressions with ago:
  • long ago (correct), not short ago
  • a long time ago, a short time ago (correct)
  • much ago or little ago (incorrect)
• Italian equivalents:
  • poco fa / poco tempo fa (correct)
  • lungo/molto fa (incorrect)
  • molto tempo fa (correct)

3. Grammar rules vs. actual use: examples

4. Limitations of grammars and dictionaries

• They are not timeless and cannot cover all language instances.
• Language is more complex than any grammar or dictionary can fully describe.
• Some rules and definitions work well but do not always apply in real use.

5. Linguistic approach to language learning and analysis

• Instead of applying classification principles normatively, observe how language actually works.
• Derive solutions from empirical observations rather than fixed rules.
• To learn and compare languages, combine:
  • Knowledge of language form (word forms, syntax)
  • Observation of language use in context

To understand language, you must study both its formal rules and its actual use in communication.

1. Key Aspects of Language Production

Language production requires engaging in a complex communication system involving:

• Emotions: Emotional states (e.g., anxiety, excitement) can affect speech ability.
• Knowledge of the world: Understanding context and content.
• Knowledge of language conventions: Mastery of linguistic norms and rules.

2. Nature of Language Use

• Language is not simply a combination of discrete components (morphemes, phonemes, words).
• It blends routine acquired through use with creative deviation, allowing the creation of new linguistic items.
• Language serves multiple functions:
  • Ideational: Forming and expressing thoughts and content.
  • Interpersonal: Taking social roles and shaping relationships.
  • Textual: Recognizing and producing specific types of events or texts (e.g., doctor’s visit, newspaper article).

3. Language Systems and Meaning

• Languages have lexico-grammatical systems but also unique ways of using these systems in context.
• Words are not isolated units of meaning; rarely does one word in one language correspond exactly to one word in another.
• Meaning arises from combinations of words, governed partly by lexico-syntactic rules but largely shaped by use and routine.

Language is generated through use, combining cognitive, social, and contextual factors to fulfill communicative purposes in real situations.