News Media in English-Speaking World

A) 📰 Newspapers

1) Historical Context

• Until the 1870s, major papers like the London Times and New York Tribune were expensive and aimed at the elite.
• Most papers were political, focusing on shaping party positions.

2) Accessibility and Growth

• Technical advances reduced newspaper prices.
• Expansion of elementary education increased the number of readers.
• The penny press made news accessible to middle-class citizens in the US for just one cent.

3) Revenue Shift

• By 1900, advertising became the primary revenue source for newspapers.
• Owners and entrepreneurs created a popular press focused on sensational news, known as yellow journalism (US) or tabloid journalism (UK).

4) Modern Challenges

• The rise of broadcast media and the Internet led to a decline in newspaper circulation.
• Despite this, broadsheets (newspapers of record) remain essential for democracy, including:
  • The Guardian
  • The Washington Post
  • The New York Times
  • The Economist (weekly)
  • Time (weekly)
  • USA Today
  • The Daily Telegraph
  • The Financial Times
  • The Times
  • The Wall Street Journal

B) 📅 Golden Age of Newspapers

1) Key Developments

• First Amendment guarantees freedom of the press.
• Competition between press barons W. Hearst and J. Pulitzer spurred yellow journalism.
• Government licenses for publishing were no longer required, establishing de facto freedom of the press in the UK.

C) 🌍 Impact of Wars

1) First World War

• Governments imposed censorship on the press.
• The Daily Mail became the first paper to rely heavily on advertising revenue.

2) Second World War

• The first TV broadcast in the U.S. occurred.
• The first TV ads for a U.S. presidential campaign were introduced.

A) 🕵️‍♂️ Investigative Journalism

1. Definition: Investigative journalism involves in-depth reporting on a specific topic.
2. Traditional Medium: Historically, this type of journalism has been primarily conducted by newspapers.

B) 📜 Key Historical Events

C) 🌐 The Role of Whistleblowers

• Decline of Investigative Journalism: Reduced advertising revenue has led many traditional news outlets to cut back on investigative reporting.
• Self-Publication: Some whistleblowers now choose to leak information directly online.
• Wikileaks: This platform has exposed numerous government secrets, including U.S. military and diplomatic documents.

D) 🕵️ Edward Snowden

1. Background: In 2013, Edward Snowden leaked classified information about U.S. intelligence programs.
2. Consequences: He faces espionage charges in the U.S. and has sought asylum in Russia.

A) 📰 Overview

• News agencies (or wire services) provide newspapers and broadcasters with information about various news events worldwide.
• Most media outlets rely on news agencies for information they cannot afford to gather independently.

B) 🌍 Major News Agencies

1. Associated Press (AP)

   • Founded in 1848 in the U.S.
   • Non-profit organization.
   • Distributes news reports in English, Spanish, and Arabic.
   • Has won 54 Pulitzer Prizes, including 32 for photography since 1917.

2. Reuters

   • Founded in 1851 in the U.K.
   • Employs approximately 2,500 journalists and 600 photojournalists across about 200 locations worldwide.

A) 📻 Overview of Broadcasting

1) BBC Foundation

• The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was founded in the 1920s.
• It is publicly financed, allowing it to operate without advertising.

2) BBC's Reach

• The BBC is the largest broadcaster globally, employing over 23,000 people.
• It operates 10 U.K. channels, 59 radio stations, and has a strong online presence.
• Over 30% of TV viewing in Britain is on the BBC.
• The BBC broadcasts in 71 languages, reaching 188 million listeners weekly.

3) American Broadcasting Landscape

• Unlike the U.K., American broadcast media has always been privately operated.
• Public TV and radio have a more limited scope in the U.S.
• The "Big Three" networks (CBS, NBC, ABC) have dominated since the 1930s.
• Competitors include Fox and cable news channels like Fox News, MSNBC, and CNN.

B) 📺 Golden Age of TV

1) Key Events Timeline

• The Vietnam War significantly impacted TV news coverage.
• The funeral of Princess Diana remains the most-watched broadcast in history.

A) 🌐 Definition and Impact

1) Free News Access

• The Internet provided "free" news, reducing the need for paid subscriptions.
• This shift undermined the business model of many newspapers.

2) Role of Social Media

• Social media platforms like blogs, YouTube, and Twitter facilitated citizen journalism.
• News collection, reporting, analysis, and dissemination are now accessible to everyone, not just professionals.

B) 📹 Citizen Contributions

1) Breaking News Reporting

• Citizens often report breaking stories first, using eye-witness videos.
• In politically unstable regions, they are crucial for documenting events.

C) ⚖️ Reliability Concerns

1) Criticism of Citizen Journalism

• Critics question the reliability of citizen journalists compared to trained professionals.
• Professional journalists typically conduct background research and fact-checking.

2) Objectivity Issues

• Professional journalists aim for objectivity, disclosing political affiliations.
• Citizen journalists may present a subjective and opinionated perspective, which can be misleading.

A) 🇬🇧 United Kingdom

• Constitutional monarchy & parliamentary democracy.
• No written constitution, no separation of powers, no elected head of state.

B) 👑 The Monarch

• Turns bills into acts with Royal Assent.

C) 🏛️ Parliament

• 3 main functions:
  1. Makes and changes laws.
  2. Scrutinises (checks and challenges) the work of the government.
  3. Controls government spending (budget and taxes).

D) 🏠 The House of Commons

• Members of Parliament (MPs) are elected.
• 650 Members representing constituencies of the UK.
• More powerful than the House of Lords.
• Scrutinises and approves all legislation.

E) 🏰 The House of Lords

• Peers are appointed.
• Approximately 800 peers:
  • 659 life peers appointed by the monarch.
  • 26 Bishops and archbishops.
  • 92 hereditary peers (inherit membership).
• Three roles:
  1. Checks the government's actions.
  2. Investigates public policies.
  3. Makes laws.
• Limited powers: Can only delay bills for up to 1 year.

F) 👔 The Government

• The Prime Minister (PM) resides at 10 Downing Street.
• Chooses about 100 ministers (about 20 make up the Cabinet).
• Main government figure in the Commons; ministers are also MPs.

G) 🗳️ General Elections

• Held at least every five years using a first past the post system.
• The leader of the political party with the majority of seats in the Commons becomes Prime Minister.

A) 🏛️ Legislative Power

1) Congress

• Located at the Capitol.
• Powers include:
  • Taxation
  • Trade
  • Army
  • Diplomacy
  • Budget
• Has the right of impeachment against high federal officials and the president for misconduct.

B) 🏢 Executive Power

1) The President (POTUS)

• Resides at the White House.
• Can serve two terms.
• The presidential ticket includes the POTUS and vice president, elected for a four-year term.
• The vice president substitutes if the president dies, resigns, or is incapacitated.
• Shares powers with Congress:
  • Commander in Chief of the armed forces.
  • Nominates federal officials and Supreme Court judges with Senate approval.
  • Exclusive power to grant pardon.
• Delivers the State of the Union Address annually to present the political agenda.

C) ⚖️ Judicial Power

1) The Supreme Court (SCOTUS)

• Reviews laws passed by Congress for constitutional conformity.
• Composed of nine Justices appointed for life by the president with Senate approval.
• Justices can only be replaced through impeachment, death, or resignation.

D) 🏛️ Structure of Congress

E) 📜 Legislative Process

1. An elected representative sponsors a bill.
2. The bill is examined by committees.
3. The bill is debated in the House of Representatives.
4. The bill is sent to the Senate for a majority vote.
5. The president's signature turns the bill into law.
6. If vetoed, Congress can override with a two-thirds majority in both chambers.