Chap. 1

The Present Simple

• Present simple: expresses facts, repeated actions, or permanent truths.
• Form: base verb + -s or -es for third person singular (he, she, it).
• Verbs ending in -sh, -ch, -o, -ss, -x, -z add -es.
• No auxiliary verb in positive sentences; do/does used for questions and negatives.
• Irregular verb be: am (I), is (he/she/it), are (we/you/they).
• Irregular verb have: has (he/she/it), have (others).

Chap. 2

The Present Simple Negative

• Negative with be: add not after verb (e.g., is not = isn’t).
• Negative with other verbs: use do not / does not + base verb.
• Main verb remains in base form in negatives.

Chap. 3

Present Simple Questions

• With be: invert subject and verb (Is he...? Are they...?).
• With other verbs: use do/does + subject + base verb.
• No -s/-es added to main verb in questions.
• Question words can precede auxiliary verbs for open questions.

Chap. 4

The Present Continuous

• Describes ongoing actions at the moment of speaking.
• Form: am/is/are + verb + -ing.
• Spelling rules for -ing: drop silent -e, change -ie to -y, double consonant if stressed syllable ends in consonant-vowel-consonant.
• State verbs usually not used in continuous forms.

Chap. 5

Present Continuous Questions and Negatives

• Questions: invert subject and be verb.
• Negatives: add not after be verb; participle stays unchanged.

Chap. 6

Present Tenses Overview

• Present simple: permanent situations, repeated actions, general truths.
• Present continuous: temporary situations, ongoing actions.
• Questions and negatives differ in formation between the two tenses.

Chap. 7

Imperatives

• Used for commands, requests, warnings, directions.
• Form: base verb; negative formed with do not/don’t + base verb.
• Subject usually omitted but can be added for clarity or emphasis.
• Politeness added with please, do, or softening phrases.
• Let’s used for suggestions including the speaker.

Chap. 8

The Past Simple

• Describes completed actions at a fixed past time.
• Regular verbs: add -ed with spelling rules (double consonant, change -y to -ied, etc.).
• Irregular verbs: no fixed rules; must be memorized.
• Verb be: past forms was (singular), were (plural).

Chap. 9

Past Simple Negative

• Use did not/didn’t + base verb for negatives (except be).
• Verb be negatives: was not/wasn’t, were not/weren’t.

Chap. 10

Past Simple Questions

• Use did + subject + base verb for questions (except be).
• For be, invert subject and verb (was/were).

Chap. 11

The Past Continuous

• Describes ongoing past actions.
• Form: was/were + verb + -ing.
• Often used with past simple to show interrupted actions or scene-setting.

Chap. 12

The Present Perfect Simple

• Talks about past events with present relevance or unfinished actions.
• Form: have/has + past participle.
• Regular past participles: -ed; irregular must be memorized.
• Difference from past simple: present perfect has no specific past time.

Chap. 13

The Present Perfect Continuous

• Describes ongoing or recent past actions with present effect.
• Form: have/has been + verb + -ing.
• Emphasizes duration or continuity.

Chap. 14

The Past Perfect Simple

• Describes an action completed before another past action.
• Form: had + past participle.

Chap. 15

The Past Perfect Continuous

• Describes ongoing past action before another past event.
• Form: had been + verb + -ing.

Chap. 16

“Used to” and “Would”

• Used to: past habits or states, including fixed past states.
• Would: past habits only, not states.
• Negative and questions use use to (without -d).
• Past continuous not used for past habits.

Chap. 17

Past Tenses Overview

• Past simple: completed past actions.
• Present perfect simple: past actions with present relevance.
• Past continuous: ongoing past actions.
• Past perfect simple: actions before other past actions.
• Past perfect continuous: ongoing past actions before other past events.

Chap. 18

The Future with “Going to”

• Used for planned future actions or predictions based on present evidence.
• Form: be + going to + base verb.
• Negatives: add not after be.
• Questions: invert subject and be.

Chap. 19

The Future with “Will”

• Used for spontaneous decisions, promises, offers, and predictions without evidence.
• Form: will + base verb.
• Negatives: will not / won’t.
• Questions: invert subject and will.
• Shall used with I/we for offers or suggestions (rare in US English).

Chap. 20

The Present Simple and Present Continuous for Future Events

• Present simple: scheduled future events.
• Present continuous: planned future events.
• Time expressions clarify meaning.

Chap. 21

The Future Continuous

• Describes an action in progress at a future time.
• Form: will be + verb + -ing or less commonly be going to be + verb + -ing.
• Used for neutral questions and speculation about present.

Chap. 22

The Future Perfect

• Describes an action completed before a future time.
• Form: will have + past participle.

Chap. 23

The Future Perfect Continuous

• Describes duration of an action up to a future time.
• Form: will have been + verb + -ing.

Chap. 24

The Future in the Past

• Describes past views or predictions about the future.
• Forms: was/were going to + base verb, would + base verb, or past continuous.

Chap. 25

The Passive Voice

• Subject receives the action.
• Form: be + past participle; agent introduced by by (optional).
• Present simple passive: am/is/are + past participle.
• Present continuous passive: am/is/are being + past participle.
• Past simple passive: was/were + past participle.
• Past continuous passive: was/were being + past participle.
• Present perfect passive: have/has been + past participle.
• Past perfect passive: had been + past participle.
• Future simple passive: will be + past participle.
• Future perfect passive: will have been + past participle.
• Passive with modals: modal + be + past participle.
• Informal passive: get + past participle.

Chap. 26

Conditional Sentences

• Zero conditional: if/when + present simple, present simple; general truths.
• First conditional: if + present simple, will + base verb; real future possibilities.
• Second conditional: if + past simple, would/could + base verb; unreal present/future.
• Third conditional: if + past perfect, would/could/might have + past participle; unreal past.
• Mixed conditionals combine second and third conditionals for present results of past situations.
• Modals can replace will/would in result clauses to express possibility or obligation.
• Unless means if not; can replace if in conditionals.
• Formal third conditional: invert had and subject, omit if.

Chap. 27

Future Possibilities

• Use what if or suppose + present tense for likely future outcomes.
• Use what if or suppose + past simple for unlikely future outcomes.
• In case / just in case + present tense for planning for possible futures.
• Past perfect with what if / suppose for unreal past possibilities.

Chap. 28

Wishes and Regrets

• Wish + past simple: regrets about present or desires for change.
• Wish + past perfect: regrets about past actions.
• Wish + could: desire to do something.
• Wish + would: desire for someone else to do something.
• Should have / ought to have: express past regrets.
• Stronger regrets: if only + past simple/past perfect.

Chap. 29

Forming Questions

• With be or auxiliaries: invert subject and verb.
• Without auxiliaries: use do/does/did + subject + base verb.
• Question words start open questions; word order depends on main verb.
• Object questions use auxiliary do; subject questions do not.
• Indirect questions: polite phrases + question word + subject + verb (no inversion, no do).

Chap. 30

Question Tags

• Positive statement + negative tag; negative statement + positive tag.
• Tag verb matches auxiliary or be verb in statement.
• Intonation rising for genuine questions, falling for confirmation.

Chap. 31

Short Questions and Short Answers

• Short questions: auxiliary + subject, show interest.
• Short answers: auxiliary + subject, omit main verb.
• Auxiliary verb in question repeated in short answer.

Chap. 32

Reported Speech

• Changes tense back one step (present simple → past simple, etc.).
• Pronouns and time/place references often change.
• Reporting verbs: say, tell (tell requires object), and others expressing manner.
• Reporting verbs can be followed by that clauses or object + infinitive.
• Negatives: auxiliary verbs change tense, not placed accordingly.
• Reported questions: subject + verb (no inversion), tense backshift, if/whether for yes/no questions.
• If/whether interchangeable; whether more formal.
• Modal verbs (except will, can) usually do not change tense.

Chap. 33

Types of Verbs

• Main verbs: describe actions or states.
• Auxiliary verbs: help form tenses, questions, negatives.
• Modal verbs: express ability, permission, obligation, possibility, etc.
• Linking verbs: connect subject to complement (e.g., be, seem).
• Transitive verbs: take objects; intransitive verbs: do not.

Chap. 34

Action and State Verbs

• Action verbs: describe activities, can be continuous.
• State verbs: describe states, feelings, senses; usually not continuous.
• Some verbs can be both, depending on meaning.

Chap. 35

Infinitives and Participles

• Infinitive: base verb, often with to (full infinitive) or bare infinitive.
• Present participle: verb + -ing, used in continuous tenses and as gerunds.
• Gerunds: -ing form used as nouns.
• Past participle: used in perfect tenses and passive voice; regular -ed, irregular forms must be learned.
• Spelling rules apply for adding -ing and -ed.

Chap. 36

Verb Patterns

• Some verbs followed by infinitives, others by gerunds, some by both with/without meaning change.
• Infinitive often expresses purpose; gerund often expresses simultaneous action.
• Some verbs require objects before infinitive or gerund.
• Double object verbs: indirect object before direct object or after with to/for.
• Verbs with prepositions require gerunds after preposition.

Chap. 37

Phrasal Verbs

• Verb + particle(s) with idiomatic meaning.
• Particle never changes form; verb changes with tense and subject.
• Separable phrasal verbs: object can go between verb and particle or after particle; pronoun objects must go between.
• Inseparable phrasal verbs: object always after particle.
• Three-word phrasal verbs: verb + particle + preposition; usually inseparable.
• Some nouns derived from phrasal verbs.

Chap. 38

Modal Verbs

• Do not change form; followed by base verb.
• Negatives formed by adding not after modal.
• Questions formed by inversion of modal and subject.
• Express ability (can, could), permission (can, could, may), requests, offers, advice (should, ought to, had better), obligations (must, have to), deductions and possibilities (might, could, must, can’t).
• No future form for must; use have to with will for future obligation.

Chap. 39

Quantity

• Use a/an for singular countable nouns; some for plural or uncountable in positive statements; any in questions and negatives.
• Much for uncountable, many for countable in questions and negatives.
• Enough and too used with adjectives, adverbs, and nouns to express sufficiency or excess.
• Approximate quantities: a lot of, lots of, few, a few, little, a little, quite a few, quite a bit.
• Fewer with plural countable nouns; less with uncountable nouns.
• Use more to indicate increase.

Chap. 40

Personal Pronouns

• Subject pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
• Object pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, them.
• Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves; used when subject and object are same or for emphasis.
• Reflexive pronouns not used with verbs that do not reflect back to subject.

Chap. 41

Indefinite Pronouns

• Refer to unspecified persons or things: someone, anyone, everyone, no one, something, anything, nothing, everything.
• Use singular verb forms with indefinite pronouns.
• Some pronouns used in positive statements, others in negatives or questions.

Chap. 42

Possession

• Possessive determiners: my, your, his, her, its, our, their (before nouns).
• Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs (replace nouns).
• Apostrophe + s ('s) shows possession for singular nouns; for plural nouns ending in s, add apostrophe only.
• Verbs have and have got express possession; have got mainly UK English.

Chap. 43

Defining Relative Clauses

• Give essential information to identify the noun.
• Introduced by relative pronouns: who (people, subject), whom (people, object, formal), which (things), that (people or things).
• Relative pronoun can be omitted if object of clause.

Chap. 44

Non-Defining Relative Clauses

• Add extra, non-essential information.
• Introduced by who, whom, which; that usually not used.
• Always set off by commas.
• Quantifiers can be used with of whom/which.

Chap. 45

Other Relative Structures

• Relative words: where (place), when (time), whereby (process), whose (possession), what (thing which).
• Word order in relative clauses remains normal (no inversion).

Chap. 46

Question Words with “-ever”

• Add -ever to question words to express "no matter which/what/who".
• Examples: whoever, whichever, whatever, whenever, however.
• Can function as subjects or objects.

Chap. 47

“There”

• Used with forms of be to express existence or presence.
• Present: there is (singular/uncountable), there are (plural).
• Past: there was, there were.
• Present perfect: there has been, there have been.
• Future: there will be, there is/are going to be.

Chap. 48

Introductory “It”

• Dummy subject for time, weather, distance, general statements.
• Used in fixed expressions and to emphasize parts of sentences.

Chap. 49

Shifting Focus

• Emphasize part of sentence by fronting with It is/was ... that.
• Use what clauses to emphasize emotions or desires.

Chap. 50

Inversion

• Swap subject and verb for emphasis or after negative adverbials (e.g., not only, never before).
• Use do support if no auxiliary verb.
• Inversion after so (positive) and neither (negative).

Chap. 51

Ellipsis

• Omit repeated words after conjunctions and, but, or if meaning is clear.
• Common in informal speech and replies.
• Clauses after question words can be omitted if understood.

Chap. 52

Shortening Infinitives

• Infinitive to can be omitted in some constructions to avoid repetition.
• Cannot omit to after be or have when expressing possession.
• Some verbs require full infinitive clause; others allow omission.

Chap. 53

Substitution

• Replace repeated nouns with one/ones or some.
• Replace repeated verbs with do/did.
• Use so, not, or not so to avoid repetition in positive and negative clauses.

Chap. 54

Adjectives

• Describe nouns; placed before nouns or after linking verbs.
• Types: opinion (general/specific), fact (age, color, nationality, material, shape, size).
• Order of multiple adjectives: opinion before fact; general opinion before specific opinion.
• -ing adjectives describe effect; -ed adjectives describe feelings.
• Gradable adjectives can be modified by adverbs; non-gradable describe absolute qualities.

Chap. 55

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

• Comparatives: add -er or use more/less + adjective.
• Superlatives: add -est or use the most/least + adjective.
• Irregular forms exist (good → better/best).
• Use than (not then) in comparisons.
• Modifiers can strengthen or weaken comparisons.
• Two comparatives can be combined to show cause/effect or change.
• Use as... as for equality comparisons, modifiable by adverbs.

Chap. 56

Adverbs of Manner

• Describe how actions are done; usually formed by adding -ly to adjectives.
• Some adverbs have same form as adjectives or irregular forms.
• Comparative and superlative adverbs formed with more/less and most/least or -er/-est for short adverbs.

Chap. 57

Adverbs of Degree

• Modify adjectives and verbs to express intensity (e.g., really, quite, fairly, pretty).
• Grading adverbs modify gradable adjectives; non-grading adverbs modify non-gradable adjectives.
• Placement before adjectives or verbs.

Chap. 58

Adverbs of Time

• Specify when actions occur or their duration.
• Examples: just, about to, already, yet, still.
• Used with perfect tenses and continuous tenses to indicate timing.

Chap. 59

Adverbs of Frequency

• Indicate how often something happens (always, usually, sometimes, rarely, never).
• Usually placed between subject and main verb; time phrases at sentence end.
• Questions about frequency use how often or when.

Chap. 60

“So” and “Such”

• Add emphasis: so before adjectives/adverbs; such before nouns or adjective + noun.
• Used with that to show result (e.g., so + adjective + that...).
• Such + a/an more common with extreme nouns.

Chap. 61

“Enough” and “Too”

• Enough: sufficient degree or amount; placed after adjectives/adverbs or before nouns.
• Too: excessive degree or amount; placed before adjectives/adverbs.
• Both can be used with infinitive clauses to express sufficiency or excess.

Chap. 62

Prepositions

• Show relationships of time, place, reason, etc.
• Can be simple (one word) or complex (two or more words).
• Prepositions followed by noun, pronoun, noun phrase, or gerund.
• Prepositions of place: in (inside), at (point), on (surface or line).
• Prepositions of time: at (time), on (days/dates), in (months, years, periods).
• Other prepositions: by, with, about, without.
• Dependent prepositions: specific prepositions required after certain verbs, adjectives, or nouns.

Chap. 63

Coordinating Conjunctions

• Link words, phrases, or clauses of equal importance: and, or, but, nor, yet, so.
• Use commas before conjunctions joining two main clauses.
• Nor used with inversion and positive verb form.

Chap. 64

Subordinating Conjunctions

• Link clauses of unequal importance: because, although, even though, when, while, as soon as, so that, in order to.
• Express cause, reason, contrast, time, purpose.
• Present simple used in subordinate time clauses for future events.

Chap. 65

More Linking Words

• Formal and informal linking words express contrast, reason, result, emphasis, comparison.
• Examples: however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless, besides.

Chap. 66

Prefixes and Suffixes

• Prefixes added to start of words to change meaning (e.g., un-, re-, dis-).
• Suffixes added to end of words to change meaning or word class (e.g., -able, -ful, -less, -ment).
• Spelling rules apply when adding prefixes/suffixes (dropping silent -e, changing -y to -i, doubling consonants).

Chap. 67

Easily Confused Phrases

• Get used to (doing): process of adapting.
• Be used to (doing): accustomed to something.
• Do not confuse with used to (past habit).
• Have/get something done: causative form for actions done by others; get less formal than have.

Chap. 68

Sequencing and Organizing

• Use sequencing phrases to order events (first, then, after that).
• Formal organizing phrases introduce points, examples, conclusions.
• Correcting and changing subject phrases help manage conversation flow.

Chap. 69

Deciding and Hedging

• Hedging words soften statements (e.g., seem, appear, might, could).
• Used to express uncertainty or politeness.

Chap. 70

Making Conversation

• Backchanneling: words like right, OK, really to show listening.
• Stalling: phrases like let’s see to buy thinking time.
• Organizing words help manage topic changes and flow.